Chapter 1: Understanding Our Environment
Understand Our Environment
In this course we will discuss important environmental problems.
We will also be finding many valuable solutions to these environmental problems.
We live on a MARVELOUS planet
Earth and its conditions are very unique. Earth has many resources and a lot of supplies that we need to survive but we also depend on the species living in biological communities.
Our Planet has Amazingly Rich Diversity of Life
Earth is populated by millions of species that work to live together to build habitable environments.
With the work of the species, they can build communities and livable ecosystems.
What is Environmental Science/Biology
The study of our environment and our role in it is known as environmental science.
Environmental Problems: POPULATIONS
With humans multiplying by the millions every year, the earth and its natural resources are becoming compromised.
Signs of Hope: POPULATIONS
In the last 25 years the number of children per woman has decreased immensely.
Environmental Problems: Food Supply
Food production has increased faster than the growth of human population, but without a doubt it is still a problem.
Many factors play into the role of why at lease 60 million people go hungry.
Signs of hope: Food Supply
With scientific discoveries, the traditional cultures are able to be rediscovered.
Farming has increased the supply of food
Environmental Problems: Climate Change
With the increase of human population there has also been an increase in the use of green house gases.
If we do not start making changes, we may see a global raise in temperature of about 2 to 6 degrees Celsius.
Environmental Problems: Air Quality
Air quality through out the years has been getting worse, especially in Southern Asia.
If not careful we could see a rise in the deaths of millions of people from diseases caused by air pollution.
Environmental Problems: Clean Water
Over a billion people do not have the luxury of safe drinking water.
Unsafe water takes the lives of more than 15 million people a year.
Signs of Hope: Health
Life expectancy has almost doubled and life threatening infections has also decreased in the last century.
Signs of Hope: Pollution
Countries worldwide are changing the way their industries poor out pollutants into the air.
Environmental Problems: Energy Resources
Fossil Fields are diminishing worldwide and we need to invest in new ways to conserve energy in a cleaner way.
Signs of Hope: Renewable Energy
With the development of wind energy, solar, wave, and tidal energy we will be able to reduce the amount of pollutants that are released into the air.
Environmental Problems: Biodiversity Loss
By the rise of organisms and the destruction of habitats, the elimination of species is growing rapidly.
Signs of Hope: Conservation of Forests and Nature Preserves
Worldwide the increase of protecting areas is on the rise. Places around the world have slowed deforestation, and is working to protect forests.
Environmental Problems: Marine Resources
By the amount of fisheries world wide there is starting to be a depletion in fish which needs to be better managed.
Signs of Hope: Protection of Marine Resources
With the rise of marine reserves we are able to start approaching ways to protect our marine ecosystems.
Human Dimensions of Environmental Science
Poverty Causes Environmental Damage
Woman and children are mainly the ones who lack decent health and a productive life
About 1/5 of human population live in acute poverty
Reducing Poverty Can Help the Environment
While poor people have to live in poor areas they are the ones that have to learn to live the longest without the necessities of a healthy life.
Affluence also has Environmental Costs
In countries where poverty is not a big problem, the production of natural resources is at a high rate of giving off pollutants and waste.
Sustainability is a Central Theme
Sustainability is the relationship between ecological and human progress.
Sustainable Development: making sure everyone has what they need without putting future generations at risk.
Where do Rich and Poor Live?
Mostly rich people live in North America while billions of people live in nations where they earn only about $620 dollars yearly.
Indigenous Peoples are Guardians of Much of the World’s Biodiversity
Indigenous people use wisdom to remain living in their traditional homelands.
Science Helps Us Understand Our Environment
Science is knowledge produced by watching natural phenomena.
By studying science we learn what our environment can do for us and what we can do for our environment.
Science Depends on Skepticism and Accuracy
Reproductability is making sure you produce the same results consistently.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning are Both Useful
Deductive Reasoning is general to specific
Study of phenomena for a while using existing conclusions and see if anything new happens.
Inductive Reasoning is using observations to produce a general rule
Observe patterns and collect data to come up with a conclusion
Understanding Probability
Probability is the number of desired outcomes divided by the total number of outcomes to find out the probability of something to occur.
Experimental Design
Observations that have already occurred are an example of a natural experimental.
Manipulated experiments have been altered while all other variables remain the same.
Blind Experiments are when the data is fully analyzed before the group that has been treated is known.
Double Blind Experiments are treatments to a group and a control group but the researcher does not know which is which.
Science is a Cumulative Process
Paradigm shifts are major shifts in science due to new ideas.
What is Sound Science?
Sound Science: when you hear the term sound science, ask yourself simple questions like how reliable are the sources and how does this claim fit with what we already know.
Is Environmental Science the same as Environmentalism?
Environmental science is the study of the environment in which we live
Environmentalism is the awareness that we need to take care of the environment
Critical Thinking
Used to describe logical order, analytical assessment of ideas, evidence and an argument.
It is also important in everyday life and should always be exercised.
Where Do Our Ideas About the Environment Come From?
Nature protection has historic roots. Us as humans have been cutting down trees and farming on lands for a long time, which means we have been damaging the environment for a long time. Even wild life has done massive damage to the environment as well.
Roosevelt & Pinchot Begin Pragmatic Utilitarian Conservation
President Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot thought that the forest needed to be saved for future generations so that we could build homes and have jobs.
Ethical and Aesthetic Concerns Inspired the Preservation Movement
The first President of the Sierra Club was John Muir and he felt that nature needed to exist using spiritual and aesthetic values.
John Wesley Powell argued that we needed to organize settlements around water and water shed because he felt it would help us be more conservative.
Wild Life Ecologist Aldo Leopold Pushes a “Land Ethic”
Aldo wrote respectful essays for the land and he planted trees in hopes of restoring the health and beauty of the land.
Rising Pollution Levels Led to the Modern Environmental Movement
Poor air quality took thousands of lives in 1952, which led to the rising of the Silent Spring by Rachel Carlson.
Environmental Pioneers David Brower and Barry Commoner
David Brower was an activist who introduced different techniques of environmental lobbying.
Barry Commoner was a molecular biologist that found links between science technology and environment.
Global Environmentalism
Developing nations that are in poverty produce many environmental thinkers.
Sustainable development is the idea that the world poorest populations are able to improve without ruining the environment.
Conclusion
Environmental Science helps us understand what it is that we can do to ensure the quality of life on earth.
Although we face many problems, we have overcome a lot of them as well.
Chapter 2: Environmental Systems
Systems describe interactions
A system is made up of processes and components that work interdependently.
For example: When you think about a baby being born it’s a system that must take place between cells that make up the human body.
Systems can be described in General Terms
A simple system consists of two factors.
State Variables- store necessary resources such as matter, water and energy.
Flows- are the way resources move from variable to variable.
State Variables and Flows Example:
A great example of the interaction of these two is simple. Take a food chain, the sun helps feed the plants through photosynthesis, then an herbivore or plant eater comes along and eats the plants. Then a carnivore or a meat eater comes along and eats then eventually the top order consumer will die and decomposers will eat his body and the chain continues.
Systems can be described in terms of their characteristics
Closed system- does not allow the exchange of energy or matter with its surroundings.
Open system- they take in inputs from their surroundings and then they put out puts that leave the system.
Throughput- a scientific name that describes what’s flowing throughout the system.
Positive and Negative Feedback
Positive feedback is when the state variable sees an increase then leads further increases to the same variable.
Negative Feedback- is when a system is left worse than before.
EX: A pack of wolves eat all of the rabbits in their ecosystem, with the lack of food the wolves start dying off.
Systems Exhibit Stability
Homeostasis- is a trend of a system that usually remains the same and doesn’t seem to ever change.
Stability is hard to maintain if there isn’t any negative feedback helping to complete the loops.
Systems Typically Exhibit Fluctuations
Disturbances- anything that occurs in a system in a negative or harmful way.
Disturbances can cause irreplaceable damage.
In some cases if the disturbance wasn’t to intense, ecosystems can rebuild themselves in a process called Resilience.
If the eco system is unable to bounce back and return to normal they go through a State Shift.
Emergent Properties and Systems
Emergent Properties- In an ecosystem relationships take place between plants and animals while they benefit from one another through the ability to think, share,
love and understand.
Elements of Life
Matter- is what everything is made up of. The best way to understand matter is to think of it as anything that takes up space.
Atoms- characteristics of elements made up of tiny pieces that stay together with the force of energy.
Every atom contains electrons, neutrons and protons.
Matter is Recycled
Matter has three stages of make up solids, liquids and gas
Conservation of matter- matter is always moving and transforming. It never disappears it just leaves to recombine or to transform.
Elements have Predictable Characteristics
Elements- are different types of atoms that make up matter.
Elements are already in simple form and they cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical reactions.
Only four elements are needed to make up 96% of mass of living organisms carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen.
Charged Atoms are called Ions
Ions- are charged up atoms or a group of Atoms.
Negatively Charged Atoms- are ions that have extra electrons or referred to as Anions.
Positively charged Ions- can be referred to as Cations.
Electrical Charge Keep Atoms Together
Compounds- when atoms of elements group together.
Molecule- is formed when a group of Atoms exists as one unit.
Common Molecules
Acids and Bases Release Reactive H+ or OH-
Acids- are Hydrogen ions that have been given up in water.
Bases- substances that seems to like to group up with H+
Organic Compounds have a Carbon Backbone
Organic Compounds- are made up from chains of carbon.
Four Categories of Organic Molecules
Lipids- are fat that are stored in cells for energy.
Carbohydrates- store and provide energy to the cells also includes glucose.
Proteins- give the cells their structure as well as perform many functions.
Nucleotides- are an important source of energy in the cell and are composed of five carbon sugars.
Organic Molecules
Cells are the Fundamental Units of Life
Cells- are what organisms are made up of.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus are Key Nutrients
Air from plants catches up carbon while oxygen and hydrogen come from water and air.
Other elements such as Phosphorous and Nitrogen make up sugar, proteins and nucleic acids within cells.
Energy
Energy- is described as moving matter over a distance and transferring heat between different temperatures and objects.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy- is the energy that’s contained in moving objects
EX: Waves crashing on the shore and an avalanche rolling down a hill.
Potential Energy
Potential Energy- is energy that has been stored and that is ready for use.
EX: A fire contained within the fire pit.
Energy Basics
Heat- is energy that’s transferred between objects or different temperatures.
First Law of Thermodynamics- is a statement that energy is to be conserved.
Second Law of Thermodynamics- is a statement that when energy is transferred in a system less energy is able to work.
Entropy- is disorder tends to help all natural systems.
Energy for Life
Primary Producers- are green plants that depend on the sunlight, air and water
Photosynthesis- is a process where plants trap sunlight in order to grow.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
How does Photosynthesis Capture Energy?
Respiration and Photosynthesis
Its simple plants grow then the animals eat the plants, then the animals eat the animals and breakdown their food by cellular respiration.
From Species to Ecosystems
Population- members living in the same area
Community- interaction between organisms living near one another
Ecosystem- is a community and its environment.
Food Chains, Food Webs and Trophic Levels Link Species
Food Web- a collection of individual food chains.
Trophic Levels
Trophic Levels- are the statuses of organisms eating status.
Herbivores-or Primary consumers eat only plants.
Carnivores or Secondary consumers eat meat
Decomposers Recycle Molecules in Ecosystems
Decomposers- are the ones who eat wastes of others.
Detritivores- eat litter and other debris
Fungi and Bacteria- have the role of completing the breakdown and recycle the materials.
Biochemical Cycles and Life Processes
Compounds that make up the human body are constantly moving.
The Hydrogen Cycle
Is a cycle where water is constantly flowing by entering the oceans then it evaporates. The solar winds push it all over the world and once the water reaches land in the form of rain, snow or fog it helps the environment. Eventually the organisms that consume the water through drinking end up sweating the water out and the moisture re enters the atmosphere and back into lakes and ultimately back into the oceans.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon fixation- is when plants turn carbon dioxide into sugar.
Carbon molecules can remain in the body until after death.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Plants get nitrogen by bacteria living near their roots.
Plant cells take in nitrates and build amino acids and proteins.
The Phosphorous Cycle
Can take up to one million years
Minerals get released from rocks and salts and become available to organisms.
Phosphorus gets passed on from ecosystem to ecosystem through consumers.
To much Phosphorous can be harmful to the ecosystem
The Sulfur Cycle
Volcanoes release sulfur and deep sea floor vents because it’s tied up in the minerals.
Burning of Fossil Fuels also releases sulfur.
Conclusion
The world’s environments depend on the movements of matter and energy.
Primary producers help consumers in an ecosystem as well.
CHAPTER 3 : Evolution, Species Interactions, and Biological Communities
Evolution Leads to Diversity
Natural Selection and Adaption Modify Species
Adaption- is the actions that take place to allow a species to live successfully in an environment
Natural Selection- is the passing of traits between generation to generation
Natural Selection Acts on Traits in the DNA
Mutations- are changes to ones DNA, then passed on to offspring
Some changes can be positive and or negative
Many mutations occur within a lifetime giving some species advantages over others.
When mutation takes place the result is an animal population different from the generations before.
All Species Live Within Limits
The environment can act as a barrier and species will stop trying to get out and eventually they will stay and live.
Physiology and behaviors of species make it difficult for them to live in certain environments.
Tolerance Levels- are the limits both minimum and maximum that allow certain species to survive and reproduce.
The Ecological Niche is a Species Role in the Environment
Habitat- is the place or environment that an organism calls home
Ecological Niche- are the factors that determine how many types of species can live in an area. Also explains the role the species is called to do.
Niches: Generalists and Specialists
Generalists- a large niche such as a rat
Specialists- have smaller niches like a badger
The Competitive Exclusion Principle
The competitive exclusion principle- is a rule that says no two species can live in the same niche for to long.
The species that is able to adapt and be more useful in a niche will eventually kick the other species out.
Resource Partitioning- the exclusion of one species from a niche due to the fact it isn’t efficient enough.
Partitioning allows species to live together but have different schedules and different uses for land in a niche, which helps them live peacefully together.
Speciation
Speciation- is the process of new species
Geographic Isolation helps with the Allopatric Speciation because the species come up in locations where they don’t overlap one another.
Three Patterns of Species Divergence
The two populations can begin to move apart only after isolation has taken place.
Population traits are continuously shifting over a time lapse because all the characteristics of individuals are under Selection Pressures.
Directional Selection- is when shift changes are headed towards an extreme of the trait.
Stabilizing Selections- is the ability for the shift to narrow the range of a trait.
Disruptive Selections- are when the traits go to the extremes.
Taxonomy Describes Relationships Among Species
Taxonomy- is the study of the relationships between organisms.
Binomials- are scientific or Latin names for species
When Taxonomic relationships are seen on paper they are put into a form of a family tree.
Species Interactions Shape Communities of Species
Competition Leads To Resource Allocation
Competition- is a relationship between organisms that tests one another.
Organisms have no other choice but to compete with one another for limited resources.
Intraspecific Competition- is competition between two of the same species.
Interspecific- is competition between species not of the same group.
Predation Affects Species Relationships
In order for a species to be considered a predator the it must feed directly on another living organism.
With that said even herbivores are considered predators because they eat live plants.
Some Adaptions Help Avoid Predation
Organisms have many different ways to camouflage themselves, quick speed to allude predators and also poison in the glands that they can release to fend off enemies.
Coevolution
Coevolution- are changes both in behavioral and physical to take action against predator or prey.
Coevolution is helpful to all species because they can benefit from one another.
Symbiosis: Intimate Relationships Among Species
Symbiosis: is when more than one species live with one another with the same destiny.
Among the symbiosis we have three main relationships.
Mutualism: both partners survival is enhanced.
Commensalism: while one partner succeeds the other one stays the same.
Parasitism: while one partner is increasing life, the other one is losing life.
Keystone Species
Keystone Species are vital to the biological community and they help maintain the ecosystem.
You can find keystone species often in aquatic habitats.
The Growth of Species Population
Growth without limits is exponential.
Biotic Potential: is the amount of a possible grown in population with no limitation on biological reproduction.
J-Curve of Exponential Growth
Exponential growth is known as the “J” curve because of its shape due to the limitless growth of its population. A “J” curve can also lead to an extinction of a population.
S-Shaped Logistic Growth Curve
Logistic growth results in the S Shaped curve is produced by a limiting population growth known as carrying capacity.
Limits to Population Size
Density Dependent is the more species that live in an area the more likely they are to become prey to disease and parasites or predators that are attracted to that area.
Density Independent is when a species has limit to its population and is affected at any cost.
Species Patterns Create Community Structure
Species that live together in a community form boundaries
Community: a space that individuals are distributed in.
Individuals in Communities are distributed in Various Ways
Random: resources that are randomly dispersed.
Uniform: patterns that bring on competition.
Cluster: how species protect themselves.
Communities are Distributed in Patterns Across a Landscape
Core Habitat: an environment that is able to support all the species and plants that are typically indigenous to that community.
Ecotone: acts as a border between two communities
Edge effects: the point where two communities meet
Community Properties Emerge from Diversity and Structure
Complexity: the number of species that lives in the trophic levels of a community. Some communities may have more than one trophic level with species that have similar functions.
Productivity Varies in Ecosystems
Primary Productivity: the output of biomass or energy that a community uses per year. This productivity is dependent on the environment.
Major ecosystem are different depending on their production of biomass.
Communities are Dynamic and Change Over Time
Climax Community: the last community to develop but also the community that has lasted the longest.
Primary Succession: land that has no soil and where no organisms have lived before.
Secondary Succession: after a disturbance, if left alone, soon a species will create a new community.
Pioneer Species: a community of species that creates a habitat on primary succession land.
Conclusion:
Evolution is important because it is a way of describing how species live amongst each other and how they are vital to their environment and the species around hem.
Chapter 5: Biomes and Biodiversity
Terrestrial Biomes
Biodiversity: the amount and types of species
Biomes: biological communities with different types of environment that take place in different types of conditions and water fall levels.
Biomes Vary with Latitude
Biomes can be found anywhere, whether on latitudinal lines near the equator, near the tropics
Biomes usually receive their names placed on their navigational area.
Vertical Zonation
Vertical zonation: zones of vegetation that are defined by altitude.
As elevation changed so does temperature, precipitation, which helps give certain regions their temperatures.
Tropical Rainforest
To be considered a tropical rainforest a region must accumulate more than 200 cm of rain per year.
Tropical Savannas and Grasslands are dry most of the year
Regions that do not receive much rainfall to help the growth of forest are called grasslands.
Grasslands with very few trees are known as savannas
Deserts are Hot or Cold but Always Dry
To be considered a desert a region must see less than 30 cm a year.
Temperate Grasslands have Rich Soils
The reason for this is that grasslands accumulate enough rainfall for lush grasses but not enough rainfall for forestation.
Temperate Forest can be Evergreen or Deciduous
This type of forest has many different kinds of trees.
Deciduous trees: lose leaves seasonally
Coniferous trees: cone bearing
Temperate Rainforest
Forest located on coasts are known to be the wettest.
Boreal Forest Lie North of the Temperate Zone
Boreal Forest is inhabited by coniferous trees because they can bare cold weather.
Tundra can Freeze in Any Month
Due to its high latitudes temperatures remain below freezing most of the year and due to this there is low diversity.
Marine Ecosystems
Phytoplankton: photosynthetic algae who’s main job is to support the marine food web.
Open Ocean Communities Vary from Surface to Hadal Zone
Ocean Systems
Benthic: zones that occur at the bottom of the ocean
Pelagic: water column zones
Epipelagic: is consumed by photosynthetic organisms.
Mesopelagic and Bathypelagic zones are below the epipelagic zone.
The Abyssal zone and Hadal zone are the deepest layers in the ocean.
Littoral zones are known as shorelines
Intertidal zones are the area that gets exposed when low tides occur.
Deep-sea Thermal Vent Communities
Microbes that capture sulfur compounds that are released from vents on the ocean floor.
Tidal Shores Support Rich Diverse Communities
Coral Reefs: is a vast region for many organisms in the ocean to live.
Tidal Shores: Man Groves
Mangroves are trees that grow along marine coast that are able to handle salt water.
Tidal Shores: Estuaries and Salt Marshes
Estuaries are areas where rives run into the sea
Salt Marshes are wetlands that are regularly flooded with seawater
Tidal Shores: Tide Pools
Tide pools: water that stays in rocky shores lines at high tide as well as low tide that hold water.
Fresh Water Ecosystems
There are not too many fresh water environments but still remains the center of biodiversity.
Almost all terrestrial communities need some form of fresh water.
Wetlands are Shallow and Productive
Wetlands are areas of land that is saturated most of the year.
Vegetation can grow under saturated conditions.
Wetlands are Described by their Vegetation
Swamps are areas saturated in water with trees
Marshes: areas saturated in water without trees
Bogs: areas of water that contain a layer of underwater vegetation
Streams and Rivers are Open Systems
Streams form wherever waterfall is abundant.
The bigger a stream the better a chance it creating a river.
Conclusion:
Temperature and precipitation conditions determine the types and varieties of species living in an area.
Biodiversity is variety of living things
The three types of biodiversity are:
Genetic diversity: different versions on genes within a species
Species diversity: the number of different organisms living within a community.
Ecological diversity: richness and complexity of a biological community.
Most Scientist identify Species by Genetic Similarity
Species: organisms that are able to produce fertile offspring
Phylogenetic species concept: identifies genetic similarities that allows for organisms that reproduce asexually that encounter organisms that reproduce sexually.
Evolutionary species concept: the history and common ancestors help to identify the species.
Biodiversity Hot Spots are Rich and Threatened
Only 15% of the worlds species in North America and Europe.
A large number of the worlds biodiversity is located near the equator.
Benefits of Biodiversity
Even though we may not notice it, we benefit every day from other organisms. Some organisms are irreplaceable in ecological systems.
Biodiversity Provides Foods and Medicines
For millions of years people have been using plants for medicine.
Organisms that pollinate help agricultural crops.
Biodiversity Can Support Ecosystem Stability
Communities with higher numbers of species may recover from environmental stress easier.
A way to preserve ecological services is to maintain the biodiversity.
Aesthetic and Existence Values are Important
In the U.S. alone Americans spend about 104 billion dollars a year on wildlife related recreation.
Existence value is that people have an appreciation and respect for species whether they have encountered them or not.
What threatens Biodiversity
Extinction: when a species has been eliminated or wiped off the face of the earth
Current Threats include:
Removal of forest
Increase in human population
Pollution
Animal control
Endangered Species Protection
Laws that have been set to ensure the safety of numbers of species.
The Endangered Species Act was passed by Congress in 1973 with the idea of that protecting the animals would protect economic and culture values.
What does the ESA do?
ESA identifies species at risk, come up with actions to help recover the species, e enforce laws of protecting species and habitats.
Endangered Species Act Terminology
Endangered Species: animals that are in danger of extinction
Threatened Species: animals that may very likely become endangered
Vulnerable Species: animals that have been depleted by human activities
Recovery Plants Aim to Rebuild Populations
When a species makes the list of becoming endangered the Fish and Wildlife services put together a plan to help rebuild populations and to stabilize levels.
ESA Species Terminology
Keystone species hold major effects on ecological functions and if they were to be eliminated other species would be effected as well.
Indicator Species: species depending on where they live
Umbrella Species: species that require a large habitat.
Flagship species: animals that attract humans because of their ability to draw emotions.
Habitat Protection May Be Better than Species Protection
Many scientist and other developers believe that we need to preserve ecosystems that can support a lot of biological diversity.
They believe that this way will be more effective than to have the species battle for land.
Management Principles for Protecting Biodiversity in the Future
FOUR PRINCIPLES IN PROTECTING BIODIVERSITY
Protect habitats for native species
Manage large regions to ensure natural disturbances do not become an issue.
Plan ahead so species do not become endangered
Make sure human developments do not hinder ecological developments.
Conclusion
We as humans need to protect biodiversities because we rely on them for food and many other products. Thanks to the ESA, laws have been put into place to help protect these biodiversities.
- Table of Contents
- Chapter 1: Understanding Our Environment
- Understanding Our Environment pg. 1
- We live on a MARVELOUS planet pg. 1
- Our Planet has Amazingly Rich Diversity of Life pg. 1
- What is Environmental Science/Biology pg. 1
- Environmental Problems: POPULATIONS pg. 1
- Signs of Hope: POPULATIONS pg. 1
- Environmental Problems: Food Supply pg. 1
- Signs of hope: Food Supply pg. 1
- Environmental Problems: Climate Change pg. 1
- Environmental Problems: Air Quality pg. 1
- Environmental Problems: Clean Water pg. 2
- Signs of Hope: Health pg. 2
- Signs of Hope: Pollution pg. 2
- Environmental Problems: Energy Resources pg. 2
- Signs of Hope: Renewable Energy pg. 2
- Environmental Problems: Biodiversity Loss pg. 2
- Signs of Hope: Conservation of Forests and Nature Preserves pg. 2
- Environmental Problems: Marine Resources pg. 2
o Signs of Hope: Protection of Marine Resources pg. 2
o Human Dimensions of Environmental Science pg. 2
o Sustainability is a Central Theme pg. 3
o Where do Rich and Poor Live? Pg. 3
o Indigenous Peoples are Guardians of Much of the World’s Biodiversity pg. 3
o Science Helps Us Understand Our Environment pg. 3
o Science Depends on Skepticism and Accuracy pg. 3
- Deductive and Inductive Reasoning are Both Useful pg. 3
o Understanding Probability pg. 3
o Experimental Design pg. 3
o Science is a Cumulative Process pg. 3
o What is Sound Science pg. 4
o Is Environmental Science the same as Environmentalism pg. 4
o Critical Thinking pg. 4
o Where Do Our Ideas About the Environment Come From? Pg. 4
o Roosevelt & Pinchot Begin Pragmatic Utilitarian Conservation pg. 4
o Ethical and Aesthetic Concerns Inspired the Preservation Movement pg. 4
o Wild Life Ecologist Aldo Leopold Pushes a “Land Ethic” pg. 4
o Rising Pollution Levels Led to the Modern Environmental Movement pg. 4
o Environmental Pioneers David Brower and Barry Commoner pg. 4
o Global Environmentalism pg. 4
o Conclusion pg. 5
o Chapter 2: Environmental Systems
- Systems Describe interactions pg. 5
- A Simple System Consists of Two Factors pg. 5
- State Variables and Flows Example pg 5
- Systems can be Described in Terms of Their Characteristicspg. 5
- Throughput- a scientific name that describes what’s flowing throughout the system pg.5
- Systems Exhibit Stability pg.5
- Systems Typically Exhibit Fluctuations pg. 6
- Emergent Properties and Systems pg. 6
- Elements of Life pg. 6
- Matter is Recycled pg. 6
- Elements have Predictable Characteristics pg. 6
- Charged Atoms are called Ions pg. 6
- Electrical Charge Keep Atoms Together pg. 6
- Common Molecules pg. 6
- Four Categories of Organic Molecules pg. 7
- Organic Molecules pg. 7
- Cells are the Fundamental Units of Life pg. 7
- Nitrogen and Phosphorus are Key Nutrients pg. 7
- Energy pg. 7
- Kinetic Energy pg. 8
- Potential Energy pg. 8
- Energy Basics pg. 8
- Energy for Life pg. 8
- The Electromagnetic Spectrum pg. 8
- Respiration and Photosynthesis pg. 9
- From Species to Ecosystems pg. 9
- Food Chains, Food Webs and Trophic Levels Link Species pg. 9
- Trophic Levels pg. 9
- Decomposers Recycle Molecules in Ecosystems pg. 9
- Biochemical Cycles and Life Processes pg. 9
- The Hydrogen Cycle pg. 9
- The Carbon Cycle pg. 9
- The Nitrogen Cycle pg. 10
- The Phosphorous Cycle pg. 10
- The Sulfur Cycle pg. 11
- Conclusion pg. 11
- Chapter 3: Evolution, Species Interactions and Biological Communities
- Natural Selection and Adaption Modify Species pg. 12
- Natural Selection Acts on Traits in the DNA pg. 12
- All Species Live Within Limits pg.12
- The Ecological Niche is a Species Role in the Environment pg. 12
- Niches: Generalists and Specialists pg. 12
- The Competitive Exclusion Principle pg.12
- Speciation pg. 13
- Three Patterns of Species Divergence pg. 13
- Taxonomy Describes Relationships Among Species pg. 13
- Species Interactions Shape Communities of Species pg. 13
- Competition Leads To Resource Allocation pg. 13
- Predation Affects Species Relationships pg. 13
- Some Adaptions Help Avoid Predation pg. 13
- Coevolution pg. 13
- Symbiosis: Intimate Relationships Among Species pg. 14
- Keystone Species pg. 14
- The Growth of Species Population pg. 14
- J-Curve of Exponential Growth pg. 14
- S-Shaped Logistic Growth Curve pg. 14
- Limits to Population Size pg. 14
- Species Patterns Create Community Structure pg. 14
- Individuals in Communities are distributed in Various Ways pg.15
- Communities are Distributed in Patterns Across a Landscape pg. 15
- Productivity Varies in Ecosystems pg. 15
- Communities are Dynamic and Change Over Time pg. 15
- Conclusion pg. 15
- Chapter 5 Biodomes and Biodiversity
- Terrestrail Biomes pg. 15
- Biomes Vary with Latitude pg. 15
- Verticle Zonation pg. 16
- Tropical Rainforests pg. 16
- Tropical Savannas and Grasslands are Dry Most of the Year pg. 16
- Deserts are Hot or Cold, but Always Dry pg. 16
- Temperate Grasslands have Rich Soils pg. 16
- Temperate Forests can be Evergreen or Deciduous pg. 16
- Temperate Rainforests pg. 16
- Boreal forests Lie North of the Temperate Zone pg. 16
- Tundra Can freeze in Any Month pg. 17
- Marine Ecosystems pg. 17
- Open Oceans Communities Vary from Surface to Hadal Zone pg. 17
- Deep-sea Thermal Vent Communities pg. 17
- Tidal Shores Support Rich, Diverse Communities pg. 17
- Tidal Shores: Mangroves pg. 17
- Tidal Shores: Esturies and Salt Marshes pg. 17
- Tidal Shores: Tide Pools pg. 17
- Freshwater Ecosystems pg. 17
- Wetlands are Shallow and Productive pg. 17
- Wetlands are Described by Their Vegetation pg. 18
- Biodiversity pg. 18
- Genetic Similarities pg. 18
- Biodiversity Hotspots are Rich and Threatened pg. 18
- Benefits of Biodiversity pg. 18
- Biodiversity Provides Food and Medicines pg. 18
- Biodiversity Can Support Ecosystem Stability pg. 18
- Aesthetic and Existence Values are Important pg. 19
- What threatens Biodiversity pg. 19
- Endangered Species Protection pg. 19
- What Does the ESA Do? Pg. 19
- Endangered Species Act Terminology pg. 19
- IUCN Lists Species Internationally pg. 19
- Recovery Plans Aim to Rebuild Populations pg. 19
- ESA Species Terminology pg. 10
- The ESA has Seen Successes and Controversies pg. 19
- Countries Species Protection Laws pg. 19
- Habitat Protection May be Better than Species Protection pg. 19
- Management Principles for Protecting Biodiversity in the Future pg. 20
- Conclusion pg. 20
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